Preface xii
Acknowledgments xvi
Chapter 1 Introduction to Qualitative Communication Research 1
Introduction: Working With (and Studying) Cops 1
Four Paradigms and (Maybe) a Funeral: A Brief History of Qualitative Communication Research 5
Feeling Corporate, Going Global: Two Trends in Qualitative Communication Research 13
Looking Closer: The Conduct of Qualitative Research in Communication 17
Applied Communication 17
Group Communication 18
Health Communication 19
Intercultural Communication 20
Interpersonal Communication 21
Language and Social Interaction 21
Media and Technology Studies 22
Organizational Communication 24
Performance Studies 25
Rhetoric 27
Strategic Communication 28
Conclusion 29
Chapter 2 Theoretical Traditions and Qualitative Communication Research 33
Qualitative Research and Communication Theory 33
The Phenomenological Tradition 35
The Sociocultural Tradition 39
Ethnomethodology 39
Symbolic Interactionism 42
Social Constructionism 45
Ethnography of Communication 46
Structuration Theory 49
Actor Network Theory 51
The Critical Tradition 52
Feminism 58
Postcolonialism 60
Critical Race Theory 63
Cultural Studies 65
Conclusion 69
Chapter 3 Design I: Planning Research Projects 71
Introduction 72
"My City, My Society, and My Life": Renee's Story 72
Sources of Research Ideas 75
Personal Experiences and Opportunities 75
Theory and Research Literature 78
Public Problems 83
Funding Priorities 84
Moving Toward a Commitment 86
Evaluating the Scene 87
Casing the Scene 88
Assessing Feasibility 90
Consulting Colleagues, Mentors, and Experts 93
Developing Emic and Etic Perspectives 94
Conclusion 95
Chapter 4 Design II: Implementing Research Projects 97
Introduction 97
Negotiating Access 98
Gatekeepers 98
Sponsors 100
Telling a Research Story 101
Clarifying the Involvement 104
Exploratory Methods 105
Sampling 109
Sampling Units 110
Sampling Strategies 112
Sample Size 116
Human Subject Protections 118
Informed Consent 119
Instruments 123
Vulnerable Groups 124
Data Security 125
Textual Representation 125
The Research Proposal 127
Title 127
Abstract or Executive Summary 128
Rationale 128
Conceptualization 128
Research Questions 130
Methodology, Protocol, and Logistics 130
Analysis 131
Schedule 131
Conclusion 131
Exercises 132
Chapter 5 Producing Data I: Participating, Observing, and Recording Social Action 133
Introduction: Fieldwork, Ethnography, and Participant Observation 133
Successful Participant Observation 136
Tolerance for Marginality 136
Embodiment 137
Spontaneous Decision Making 139
Being an Ethical Person 139
Difference Matters 141
Adapting Roles 144
Roles Based on Degree of Participation 144
Roles Based on Social Function 149
Tactical Observing 150
Who Are the Actors? 151
How Is the Scene Set Up? 152
How Do Initial Interactions Occur? 152
How do Actors Claim Attention? 153
Where and When Do Actors Interact? 154
Which Events Are Significant? 155
Writing Fieldnotes 155
Scratch Notes and Headnotes 156
Fieldnotes 156
Fieldwork and Fieldnotes: An Exemplar 160
Journals and Diaries 163
New Media and Participant Observation 164
Conclusion 168
Exercises 168
Chapter 6 Producing Data II: Qualitative Interviewing 170
Introduction 170
Purposes of the Qualitative Interview 172
Types of Interviews in Communication Research 176
Ethnographic Interviews 176
Informant Interviews 177
Respondent Interviews 179
Narrative Interviews 180
Focus Group Interviews 182
The Practices of Interviewing 186
The Interview Context 187
Recording Interviews 192
Developing Rapport 193
Listening 198
Question Design and Use 199
Interview Schedules and Interview Guides 199
Nondirective Questions 202
Directive Questions 207
Finishing Up 210
Transcribing Interviews 211
Conclusion 215
Exercises 216
Chapter 7 Producing Data III: Analyzing Material Culture and Documents 217
Introduction 217
Material Culture 218
Material Culture in Qualitative Research 219
Making Material Culture Visible 221
Documents 229
Documents in Qualitative Research 231
Types of Documents 233
Advantages of Document Analysis 234
Conclusion 239
Exercises 239
Chapter 8 Sensemaking: Qualitative Data Analysis and Interpretation 241
Introduction 241
Qualitative Data Analysis 243
In-Process Writing 244
Categories and Codes 246
Coding Narratives 248
Grounded Theory 250
Coding Example: An Interview Text 252
Coding Example: Invisible Disability in Families 254
Leaving the Research Site 256
Tools for Analysis 258
Manual Methods 258
Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) 260
Interpretation 266
Conceptual Devices in Interpretation 267
Exemplars in Interpretation 269
Evaluating Interpretations 271
Triangulation, Disjuncture, and Crystallization 274
Negative Case Analysis 278
Member Validation 278
Conclusion 280
Exercises 281
Chapter 9 Writing, Authoring, and Publishing 282
Introduction: Going Public 282
The Crisis of Representation 284
After the Fall: Reading and Writing Qualitative Research 286
Voice 287
Narrative Presence 288
The Genre-Audience Nexus 290
Institutional Contexts of Qualitative Writing 293
Academic Politics 293
Publishing Economics 297
New Media 299
The Craft of Qualitative Writing: Three Types of Format and Their Related Strategies 301
Traditional Writing Format 301
Alternative Writing Format 308
Multimedia Writing Format 313
Some Final Thoughts on Writing 315
Exercises 317
Epilogue 318
References 321
Author Index 358
Subject Index 371
About the Authors 377